A. Body Systems in Vertebrate Animals
   1. Circulation

	a. The Function of Blood

	   blood - river of life, carries food, oxygen,
		and wastes.

	   oxygenated blood - carries abundant oxygen
		 (hemoglobin is the molecule in blood
		 that bonds with the oxygen); bright 
		 red in color.

	   deoxygenated blood - carries less oxygen; 
		 maroon in color.  (Often depicted in
		 drawings as blue, but we do not have
		 blue blood.)

	b. Heart Chambers

	   The heart is a muscle.

	   When the heart muscle contracts, 
   		blood is forced (pumped) out of 
		spaces in the heart (chambers).

	   arteries - blood vessels that move away from
		 the heart.  (Arteries-Away)

	   veins - blood vessels that carry blood toward
		 the heart.

	   capillaries - very-thin-walled blood vessels 
		where the exchange of oxygen, carbon 
		dioxide, food, and wastes takes place.

	   Different classes of vertebrates have different
		numbers of chambers in their hearts.

  		atrium (atria) - collect blood from veins.

		ventricles - pump blood out of heart.

   2. Respiratory System

	a. Gills - take oxygen from the water and give off
 		 	carbon dioxide.

	   Are feathery - to allow maximum surface area for
 		gas exchange.

	   Contain capillaries - to allow gases to
 		enter/leave the blood stream.

	   Do not break down H2O, they remove oxygen
 		dissolved in the water.

	b. Lungs - air chambers inside an animal's body where
 		blood can obtain oxygen and give off carbon
 		dioxide.

		Contain capillaries.

		Breathing - moving air in and out of lungs

		Methods of breathing:

			"Swallowing" as in the frog.
			Diaphragm - in humans and mammals.			 	

    3. Nervous System

 	central nervous system
	   - brain
	   - spinal cord

	peripheral nervous system
	   - nerves (collection of neurons)
		cranial nerves - branch off the brain
		spinal nerves - branch off the spinal cord
	   - sensory receptors
	   - sense organs - major collection of sensory
		receptors and supporting structures

	Peripheral Nervous System: 

		- receives stimuli from the environment
		- sends messages to the Central nervous 
		   system
		- carries reply messages from the CNS to the 
			muscles and organs.

		Central Nervous System: 

		- controls reactions/ makes decisions
		- coordinated reactions (muscles)
		- controls automatic internal processes 
			(digestion)

    4. Digestion

	Alimentary Canal:
	    - mouth
	    - esophagus
	    - stomach (source of chemical and mechanical 
		digestion)
	    - small intestine (site of absorption of 
		food into blood)
		- large intestine (site of water 
		   reabsorption)
		- anus (site of waste elimination)
	
	Accessory Organs:
	    - liver - produces bile (helps break down fats)
		- gall bladder - stores bile
		- pancreas - produces enzymes (chemicals)
		    that help digest sugars, starches, 
		    proteins, and fats.
		
	(NOTE:  food does not pass through the accessory
 	organs.  They manufacture substances and release
 	them into the intestine.)


    5. Excretion in Vertebrates

	kidneys - filter wastes (urea) from blood

	ureter - tube carries soluble wastes from kidneys
 		to...

	urinary bladder - temporarily stores urine.


General characteristics of aquatic vertebrates:

   1. Have body covering of scales (excludes whale, 
      which has	hair.)

	Note: Was Jonah swallowed by a great fish, or 
	by a whale, if whales are not fish?  Well, we 
	don't know for sure, but we must remember, the 
	scientific classification that determined 
	classes by body covering was not developed 
	until many years after Jonah and the gospels 
	were written.   God might have used the
	classification system of the ancient world 
	which did place whales with fish because of 
	their place of living.  Question:  On what day 
	were the whales	created?  Probably on day 5, 
	when he created the air	and sea creatures.

   2. Gills for breathing. Smells through its nostrils.

   3. Fins for locomotion.

   4. Cold-blooded.

   5. Swim bladder (bladder means sac) 
	- air sac which allows the fish to adjust its 
		depth in the water, like a submarine 
		(There is nothing new under the sun)

   6. Lateral line - senses vibration and pressure

   7. Two-chambered heart

   8. Reproduce by spawning:
	female releases egg into water
	male fish release sperm into the water
	external fertilization - takes place outside the
	   body	of the female.
	most get eaten

B. Fish

   1. Jawless Fish
	- no jaw - sucker
	- lamprey - local pest - made its way up the ST
 	   Lawrence Seaway and ERIE CANAL to help destroy
 	   commercial fishing on the great lakes.
	- latches onto fish, and sucks their blood.

   2. Cartilage Fish - ex. sharks, rays, etc
	- has cartilage for support instead of bone
	- cartilage is the material that gives shape to your
		nose.
	- Cartilage fish have their mouths on the bottom.
   3. Bony Fish - ex. all aquarium and sport fish
	- has bone for support
	- are the only type that scientists call "fish"
	- mouths are on the end.

C. Amphibians

	1. Tail-less Amphibians
	    - frogs and toads
	    - smooth moist skin (breaths through skin)
	    - lives near water
	    - external fertilization
	    - cold-blooded
	    - hibernation - winter
	    - estivation - summer
	    - food - carnivorous (found rodent bones
		     in one frog dissection)

	    Tongue - used to catch food, anchored 
	      at back, and flipped out.

	    Teeth - have two types, but do not use 
   	      to chew.
		  maxillary teeth - ridge of upper jaw
		  vomerine teeth - roof of mouth

	    Swallows by blinking (We often say the frog
	      breaths by swallowing, and swallows by 
	      blinking)


	2. Tailed Amphibians

		- salamander and newts
		- gills, lungs, and skin
		
D. Reptiles
	- cold-blooded
	- dry, scaly skin
	- lays eggs with leathery shells
	- three chambered heart
	- able to live in dry or wet environments
	- lungs
	- internal fertilization, no metamorphosis
	
	- dinosaurs are extinct reptiles


   1. Snakes and Lizards
	Snakes:
	   - no legs
	   - no ear opening
	   - no movable eyelids
	   - molts
	   - smells with its tongue
	   - some (pit vipers) may sense heat
	   - meat eaters - will often kill rodents
	   - dislocate jaws to swallow	
	
	Lizards:
	   - may grow to be quite large
		
	
    2. Crocodiles and Alligators
	   - crocodile smile - more teeth outside 
  		its jaws, longer, more pointed snout.
	   - four-chambered heart

    3. Turtles
	turtles - sea
	tortoises - land
	
	Turtles do have a skeleton inside their shells.
	  Some of it may even be attached to the shell.

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