Common Problems of

English Grammar & Punctuation

This page is constructed by Tod E. Jones.

Teaching and research responsibilities prevent me from responding to individual requests for assistance and further information. Please send comments or suggestions to dogmatist@hotmail.com

Sources Consulted

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writer's of Reseach Papers. 4th ed.

New York: Modern Language Association, 1995.

Kirszner, Laurie G., and Stephen R. Mandell. The Holt Handbook. 3rd ed.

New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992.

Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New

York: Macmillan, 1979.

CONTENTS

Grammatical Errors

Sentence Fragments

Run-on Sentences

Subject / Verb Agreement

Pronoun / Antecedent Agreement

Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

Punctuation Errors

Commas       Semicolons       Colons

Apostrophes      Dashes       Elipses

Punctuation with Parenthetical Citations

(See also my web page MLA Style and Documentation.)

Sentence Fragments

A sentence, in order to be complete, must have a subject and a finite verb and cannot consist only of a dependent clause. 

• A sentence fragment with a subject missing:

Many off-campus students take the shuttle from the public bus stop.  Then, walk from the campus center to their classes.

Eliminate the sentence fragment either by adding the subject, "they," before "walk" or by connecting the fragment to the preceding sentence: "Many off-campus students take the shuttle from the public bus stop and, then, walk from the campus center to their classes."

• A sentence fragment with a finite verb missing:

The company has organized a convention that is to include a number of controversial speakers.  All inclined to favor the company's radical agenda.

Eliminate the sentence fragment either by adding the finite verb, "are," after "All" or by connecting the fragment to the preceding sentence: ". . . a number of controversial speakers inclined to favor the company's radical agenda."

• A sentence fragment that consists only of a dependent clause:

Merv had failed to read the assigned chapters. Because he lost his book.

I forgot to stamp the envelope. Which means that my payment is going to be late again.

There are two ways you can eliminate the sentence fragments. First, you can unite the dependent clause to the complete sentence on which it depends: "Because he lost his book, Merv had failed to read the assigned chapters." Second, you can change the fragment into an independent clause, a complete sentence: "This means that my payment is going to be late again."

Run-on Sentences

The two types of run-on sentences, comma splices and fused sentences, are created when the proper punctuation or connecting word is not used between two independent clauses.

• Comma Splice:

Gulliver wrote of four voyages, his first was to the island of Lilliput.

• Fused Sentence:

Gulliver despised Yahoos they were his neighbors.

There are four methods by which you can correct run-on sentences:

1. Use a period (instead of a comma) between clauses.
2. Use a semicolon (instead of a comma) between clauses.
3. Use a coordinating conjunction (after a comma) between clauses.
4. Make one clause subordinate to the other.

Examples:

1. "Gulliver wrote of four voyages. His first was to the island of Lilliput."
2. "Gulliver despised Yahoos; they were his neighbors."
3. "Gulliver wrote of four voyages, and his first was to the island of Lilliput."
4. "Gulliver despised Yahoos, although they were his neighbors."

Subject / Verb Agreement

A verb is that part of speech that expresses either action or a state of being.  Examples:

The professor lowered the student's grade on account of poor grammar.

The students became proficient in recognizing and correcting their own mistakes. 

The subject of the verb is either that which acts or that which is in a state of being.  For example, in the first sentence above, "professor" is the subject of the verb, since the professor is that which lowered.  In the second sentence above, "student" is the subject of the verb, since it is the student that became.

The basic rule in establishing subject/verb agreement is that verbs must agree in number and person with their subjects.  In other words, singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects require plural verbs (e.g., he reads, she reads, they read; it was, it is, it will be; they were, they are, they will be).

Most subject/verb agreement errors occur when the sentence is complicated by one or more of the following:

1. The subject and the verb are separated by an intervening phrase.
2. The subject is an indefinite pronoun.
3. The subject is compound.
4. The subject is a collective noun.
5. The subject is singular but has a plural form.

1. The subject and the verb are separated by an intervening phrase.

The arguments provided by the student in his essay were all analogical.

Since the subject of the verb is the plural "arguments," not the singular "student" or "essay," a plural verb is required.

2. The subject is an indefinite pronoun.

Each of the articles is documented.

All of the articles are documented.

In each of the examples, the subject is the indefinite pronoun, not "articles."  The prepositional phrase "of the articles" modifies the subject and is not essential to the completeness of the sentence.

Most indefinite pronouns are singular, including "everything," "everyone," "either," and "neither."  Plural indefinite pronouns include "all," "many," "few," "both," and "several."

3. The subject is compound.

Wordsworth and Coleridge are my favorite poets.

Rock and roll is here to stay.

In the first example, the subject is compound ("Wordsworth and Coleridge") and so requires a plural verb, whereas in the second example, the subject is singular.

4. The subject is a collective noun.

For this essay, her intended audience is the House of Representatives.

His intended audience are gun owners.

Whereas it is true that, in both of the examples, the intended audience consists of a multitude of persons, in the first example that audience is easily thought of as a single unit.  On the other hand, "congressmen" would require a plural verb, and "the N.R.A." would require a singular verb.

5. The subject is singular but has a plural form.

Mathematics never has been easy for me.

Great Expectations is a delightful novel.

Pronoun / Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun is a word that is used in a sentence as a substitute for a noun.  The noun for which the pronoun stands is referred to as its antecedent.  Examples:

Each student had his or her grade lowered on account of poor grammar.

All of the students had their grade lowered on account of poor grammar.

The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In the first example, because "student" is singular, it must take a singular pronoun.   Because the gender of the antecedent is, in this case, undetermined, the pronoun choice of "his or her" offers both possibilities.  In the second example, since "all" is plural, it requires a plural pronoun, "their."

In order to avoid the repetitive use of phrases such as "his or her," "she or he," and "hers or his," use a plural antecedent.

Often pronoun/antecedent agreement errors occur when the relationship between the terms is unclear because of one of these reasons:

1. There is more than one antecedent.
2. The antecedent is a collective noun.
3. The antecedent is an indefinite pronoun.

1. There is more than one antecedent.

Dickens and Disraeli show the influence of Carlyle in their novels.

Every college and university has its mascot.

When a compound antecedent is preceded by "each" or "every," as in the second example, use a singular pronoun.

2. The antecedent is a collective noun.

The M.L.A. is holding its annual convention in San Francisco this year.

The team of archaeologists left their tools behind at the site.

Whereas "the M.L.A." is regarded as a single entity, a "team" is generally thought of as a group of individuals.  Therefore, "team" requires a plural pronoun.

3.  The antecedent is an indefinite pronoun.

Everyone will take her turn in throwing the ball.

Each of the computers has its own printer.

One is not likely to forget one's umbrella when it's raining.

Most indefinite pronouns are singular. Plural indefinite pronouns include "all," "many," "few," "both," and "several."

Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

Modifiers add information, expanding and enriching your sentences.   Whenever possible, a modifier should be placed next to the headword, the word it adds information about.  A misunderstanding and confusion is often the result when the headword does not exist or when the headword and modifier are separated.

• A dangling modifier is a word or phrase for which the logical headword cannot be found within the sentence.  

Examples:

After reading the chapter, the author seemed to have a sound argument.

Many useful techniques are learned attending this seminar.

In both of these examples, the modifier has no headword, and so it is said to be dangling.  The first sentence suggests that "the author" is also the reader. Of course, this is not what the writer intends, and so the sentence must be revised: "After reading the chapter, I believed that the author had a sound argument."  The modifier is now placed next to its headword, I. The second sentence does not contain any possible subject for "attending this seminar," and so it too must be revised: "Attending this seminar, you will learn many useful techniques." By adding the headword, I have made it apparent who is expected to be "attending this seminar."  Another possible revision strategy is to change the modifying phrase: "Many useful techniques are taught in this seminar."

• A misplaced modifier is a word or phrase that is placed within the sentence so as to suggest that it modifies a word other than that which the author intended.

Examples:

The professor told her students that they could have another day to finish the assignment in class yesterday.

Without a doubt the fastest way, he took the subway to work.

In both of these sentences, the modifiers are separated from their headwords. In other words, the modifiers are misplaced.  In the first sentence, the position of the modifier suggests that "the assignment" was "in class yesterday." Clearly, however, this is not what the writer intended.  We could revise this sentence by placing the modifier either before or after the headword: "In class yesterday, the professor told her students . . ."; "The professor, in class yesterday, told her students . . . ."  In the second sentence, there are two misplaced modifiers, "without a doubt" and "the fastest way."  A mechanical revision would simply place the modifiers next to their headwords: "He, without a doubt, took the subway, the fastest way, to work."  Such a revision fails, however, to communicate the probable intent of the writer.  In this case, the sentence should be more thoroughly rephrased: "Having no doubt that the subway would be the fastest way to work, he took it."   

Commas

• Use a comma together with a coordinating conjunction to link two independent clauses. Example:

Ulysses passed beyond the Pillars of Heracles, and his ship was swallowed by the sea.

• Use commas to set off three or more items in a series. Example:

Orpheus, Heracles, Odysseus, Aeneas, and Dante are all mortals who visited the Underworld.

Note that the serial comma is used after every item, except the last, in the series.

• Use a comma to set off introductory phrases, clauses, and transitional expressions. Examples:

Thinking he could win glory and honor, Dolon set off into the night to spy on the Achaeans.

While greeting her victorious husband, Clytaemnestra was plotting his murder.

Unfortunately, Oedipus was walking right into the irresistable and unmerciful jaws of fate.

• Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements and nonrestrictive modifiers in the sentence. Examples:

The aim of culture is, if I may borrow from Arnold, our complete perfection.

Sonnets, which were first composed in the fourteenth century, consist of fourteen lines.

• Use a comma to set off a direct quotation from its identifying tag. Example:

I asked the woman in the feathered hat, "Quill you write me your phone number?" "It's on the wing," she replied.

Semicolons

• Use a semicolon between two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning and are not linked by a conjunction. Example:

Of all poets, Homer has the clearest vision; Milton is blind compared to him.

• Use a semicolon between two independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression.   Example:

Bunyan writes with a highly homiletic style; thus, he frequently comments on the pilgrim's experience by giving a series of three arguments.

Colons

• Use a colon at the end of an independent clause to introduce a list or series. Example:

The reading list for this semester includes three Victorian novels: Bleak House, Middlemarch, and The Return of the Native.

• Use a colon at the end of an independent clause to introduce explanatory material. Example:

The eponymous character is autobio- graphical: like the author, he emerged from the obscurity of a gypsy life to become a respected literary critic and novelist.

• Use a colon at the end of an independent clause to introduce the formal expression of a rule or principle. Example:

Many colon errors would be avoided if only writers would remember this one rule: Colons are almost never used except at the end of an independent clause.

Apostrophes

Use an apostrophe for the following:

1. to form the possessive of a singular noun (e.g., "a writer's craft")
2. to form the possessive of a plural noun ending in s (e.g., "the writers' craft")
3. to form the possessive of an irregular plural noun not ending in s (e.g., "women's studies")
4. to form the possessive of nouns in a series (e.g., "Kirszner and Mandell's book"), unless ownership is separate (e.g., "Kirszner's and Mandell's books")
5. to form the possessive of any singular proper noun (e.g., "James's criticism, Lewis's essays, and Forster's theory")
6. to form the possessive of any plural proper noun (e.g., "the Joneses' summer home and the Smiths' winter home")

Note: Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation or a number (e.g., "CDs," "1990s")

Dashes

Dashes and parentheses, like commas, set off nonessential elements. Whereas parenthses de-emphasize the enclosed words, dashes tend to draw the reader's attention to the words set apart.  As a general rule, if a clause or phrase can be put into parentheses, it should be omitted from your paper.

• Use dashes to enclose a phrase or clause that interrupts the train of thought. Example:

Back in those days--these were the days before television--we all used to be producers and directors of the imagination.

• Use dashes to set off a parethetical element that contains a comma and might result in misinterpretation if set off with commas. Example:

The artist had only primary colors--red, yellow, and blue--and secondary colors with which to paint.

• Use a dash to introduce a summary.  Example:  

Proud, selfish, deceitful, and murderous-- Odysseus's character makes him the very type of the flawed hero. 

Elipses

• Use elipses to indicate an omission in a quotation.  Do not, however, begin a quoted passage with elipses. Example:

Carlyle observes, "The wretched are not cheerful company. Dante . . . was not a man to conciliate men."

Macaulay wrote of Edward Russell, "Bad as he was, he was much under the influence of two feelings . . . . Professional spirit and party spirit were strong in him."

Note that the three eliptical marks do not replace normal punctuation.  Thus, a period is required after the elipses when the elipses indicate the omission of the end of a sentence.

• Use a line of elipses to indicate the omission of one or more lines in a quotation of three or more lines of verse.  Example: 

Forgive my grief for one removed,

Thy creature, whom I found so fair.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Forgive these wild and wandering cries,

Confusions of a wasted youth.

(See also "Presenting Quotations" in MLA Style and Documentation.)

Punctuation with Parenthetical Citations

When a clause or phrase is followed by a parenthetical citation, the normal punctuation for that clause or phrase is placed after the final parenthesis, unless the clause is a quotation that ends with an exclamation point or a question mark.  Examples:

"What poets, I cried aloud, as one does in the dusk, what poets they were!" (Woolf 14).

Woolf makes the point, "For though we say that we know nothing about Shakespeare's state of mind, even as we say that, we are saying something about Shakespeare's state of mind" (56).

"No age can ever have been as stridently sex-conscious as our own," wrote Virginia Woolf in 1928 (99).

When a longer quotation is set apart and double-indented, place terminal punctuation marks before the parenthetical citation, immediately after the quotation.  Example:

Those who find ugly meanings in beautiful things are corrupt without being charming.  This is a fault. Those who find beautiful meanings in beautiful things are the cultivated. For these there is hope. (Wilde 17)

(See also "Citing Sources" in MLA Style and Documentation.)